Examining Key Populations in the Context of Implementing Cyberbullying Prevention and Intervention Initiatives

Literature Review on 2SLGBTQ+, Girls, and Ethno-racially Diverse Youth

Abstract

This report reviewed literature on the cyberbullying experiences of young people who are minoritized based on their gender, sexuality and/or ethno-racial identities to inform cyberbullying prevention and intervention initiatives. Using a priori inclusion and exclusion criteria and keywords to scan academic databases and sources of grey literature, a total of 162 articles were analyzed. The research is relatively recent and has a largely Western world focus, owing to a review of only English studies. There are limited studies on risk and protective factors and even fewer intervention studies to inform cyberbullying prevention and intervention initiatives for minoritized youth. Though few, findings suggest that cyberbullying programs can target the protective and risk factors for minoritized youth. Offline bullying victimization is a common key risk factor of cybervictimization for minoritized youth. Thus, programs designed to prevent and intervene in targeted offline bullying may be effective at reducing the risk of cybervictimization and mediating the associated impacts. In addition, there are several key factors that may be effective elements of prevention and intervention initiatives: connectedness (e.g., family support, school connectedness) for 2SLGBTQ+ youth; mental health support for girls and young women; and opportunities to build a stronger sense of ethno-racial identity for ethno-racial minorities. This report recommends supplementary research to address research opportunities and gaps; the development and evaluation of initiatives based on risk and protective factors; and leveraging existing partnerships and networks of minoritized youth and their communities to support relevant initiatives, social policy, and social change.

Author’s Note

The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of Public Safety Canada. Correspondence concerning this report should be addressed to:
Research Division
Public Safety Canada
340 Laurier Avenue West
Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0P8

Email: PS.CPBResearch-RechercheSPC.SP@canada.ca

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions of Dr. Jennifer Martin, Dr. Andrea Slane, Fiona Amara, Reem Atallah, Kelly Gillis, Emma May Liptrot, Catherine Moleski, and Katy Celina Sandoval.

Introduction

Purpose

The main intent of this report is to provide a comprehensive review of recent advances in cyberbullying research and knowledge, with a specific focus on different gender, sexual and/or ethno-racial minority groups (youth and young adults) in Canada and internationally. A previous literature review “Cyberbullying research in Canada: A systematic review” (Zych et al., 2020) conducted for Public Safety Canada revealed that there is a gap in knowledge in this area. Thus the primary objective of this cyberbullying review is to focus on recent literature and examine the prevalence of cyberbullying perpetration and victimizations among gender and ethnic minority groups in Canada and abroad; the impacts of cyberbullying on youth and young adults in different minority groups; how ethnicity and gender are understood as risk factors and protective factors and the specificity of factors associated with different ethnic and gender minorities; the considerations that should be made in order to better protect minority groups from cyberbullying; and the remaining gaps in research and understanding in relation to cyberbullying among different minority groups. This report will present a systematic review of academic literature and grey literature, from Canada and abroad, on the topic.

Context

Cyberbullying has been defined as “any behaviour performed through electronic or digital media by individuals or groups that repeatedly communicates hostile or aggressive messages intended to inflict harm or discomfort to others” (Tokunaga, 2010, p. 278) and thus refers to willful and repeated harm, done through the use of electronic devices (cellphones, computers, etc.) (Patchin & Hinduja, 2015). This definition is changing with the ever-evolving nature of online activities and interactions, however; cyberbullying behaviours can take many forms (e.g., harassment, cyberstalking, outing/doxing, trolling, exclusion, fake profiles, etc.). Indeed, another definition of cyberbullying refers to “using information and communication technologies (ICT) to repeatedly and intentionally harm, harass, hurt and/or embarrass a target” (Peter & Petermann, 2018, p. 358). Some of the differences between online and offline bullying include anonymity, greater social dissemination, lack of supervision, and greater accessibility.

Unfortunately, cyberbullying is a common occurrence among children, youth and young adults. Of note, in 2014, the General Social Survey on Victimization in Canada found that approximately “17% of the Canadian population aged 15 to 29 that accessed the Internet at some point between 2009 and 2014, reported they had experienced cyberbullying or cyberstalking” (Hango, 2016). The recent Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children study published by the Public Health Agency of Canada also provides statistics about bullying and cyberbullying incidences among youth, shedding light, for example, on the reporting of cyberbullying by girls versus boys, “girls are more likely to report being cyber-victimized than boys. For example, 16% of girls in grade 10 and 9% of boys in grade 10 report being cyber-victimized” (Craig. et al., 2020)^{Footnote 1}. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic and social distancing requirements, cyberbullying has become more salient. Furthermore, racist cyberbullying targeting East and Southeast Asian youth has increased (Alsawalqa, 2021; Cheah et al., 2020).

Cyberbullying is particularly harmful to those who are victimized. Some researchers suggest that online bullying can, in some cases, have more serious consequences than traditional victimization. Victims of cyberbullying may experience various emotional, social, and academic problems (e.g. anxiety, depression, self-denigration, poor relationships, isolation, aggression, etc.) and consequences (e.g. decreased academic performance, poor concentration, etc.). They may also suffer from reminders and revictimization every time they go online. Indeed, there is a continuum of harm with cyberbullying, and, in some cases, severe consequences may include suicide and suicidal ideation (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010). Cyberbullying is particularly difficult to address due to the issues of anonymity; widespread access to Internet/social media, particularly in urban contexts^{Footnote 2}; the potential for behaviours to “go viral”; private/inaccessible platforms, apps and websites; the difficulty of removing offensive material; the dissemination of private information and photographs and the legal framing thereof; youth possession of sensitive images, etc. Furthermore, cyberbullying deploys various types of violence that specifically target gender, sexual, and ethnic minorities, including racial and gender-based violence.

In light of the overall prevalence of cyberbullying, the specific experiences of different gender, sexual and ethnic minority groups (i.e., girls/women, trans people, queer populations, racialized populations, Indigenous populations, etc.) may be substantial^{Footnote 3}, although related literature is limited. Where research is available, this literature review seeks to shed greater light on different gender, sexual, and ethnic minority groups (i.e., prevalence, risk factors, protective factors, impacts, etc.), in order to help inform the development and implementation of policies and programs aimed at addressing and reducing cyberbullying directed at and among these subgroups.

Rationale

Public Safety Canada seeks to further understand the most promising practices and keep abreast of the latest knowledge and research relating to cyberbullying. In this regard, Public Safety Canada has conducted an environmental scan of programs (Directions Evidence and Policy Research Group, LLP, 2019) and a literature review on cyberbullying (Zych et al., 2020) and is interested in learning more about the gaps that were highlighted as key areas of focus. Thus, this literature review will take a deeper look at the specific experiences of different ethnic, gender, and sexual minority groups (youth and young adults) in the context of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, with a view to informing future policy and program design for Canadian federal government programming aimed at reducing cyberbullying. This effort will contribute to Public Safety Canada/the Government of Canada’s broader priorities and agenda focusing on reducing crime and enhancing community safety through prevention, policing, and corrections.

Objective and Research Questions

The primary objective of the work is to provide a comprehensive report on recent advances in cyberbullying research and knowledge, with a specific focus on different gender, sexual and ethnic minority groups (youth and young adults) in Canada and internationally. Gender minorities are defined as populations whose genders are minoritized in our society (e.g., trans, gender-queer, non-binary, Two-Spirit). Sexual minorities are defined as populations whose sexualities are minoritized in our society (e.g., Two-Spirit, lesbian, bisexual, pansexual). Ethno-racial minorities are defined as populations whose ethnicities and/or racial identities are minoritized in our society (e.g., racialized, Indigenous, immigrant). This report will explore:

• The prevalence of cyberbullying perpetration among gender, sexual and ethnic minority groups in Canada and abroad;
• The prevalence of cyberbullying victimization among gender, sexual and ethnic minority groups in Canada and abroad;
• The short and long-term impacts of cyberbullying on youth and young adults in different gender, sexual, and ethnic minority groups, and the extent to which the impacts differ between groups;
• How the intersectionality of various minority group memberships (gender, sexuality, ethnicity) uniquely impacts youth and young adults’ experiences with cyberbullying;
• Which risk factors/protective factors are most important to identify and address in order to prevent and intervene in incidences of cyberbullying (both perpetration and victimization) among different minority groups;
• The considerations, if any, that have been made within existing cyberbullying prevention and intervention initiatives for different minority groups;
• The considerations that can/should be made in cyberbullying prevention and intervention initiatives in order to better address cyberbullying among different minority groups; and
• The remaining gaps in research and understanding in relation to cyberbullying among different minority groups.

Methodology

Scope of Research and Search Parameters

This review is limited to literature written in English available through web searches from the early 2000s to August 2021, appearing in electronic databases (academic journal articles/peer reviewed articles and book chapters) and in select sources of grey literature (e.g., government publications) and does not include consultations or interviews. The search included Canadian and international literature.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Documents were screened according to the following inclusion and exclusion criteria:

• Studies were included if cyberbullying was explicitly measured through a specific instrument (scale, observation, peer nominations, etc.). Studies where cyberbullying was mentioned, but not measured, were excluded.
• This literature review focuses specifically on cyberbullying. Thus, cyberbullying was analyzed as a separate variable, not as a part of general bullying. Papers that measured cyberbullying as a part of bullying and treated bullying and cyberbullying as a single variable were excluded.
• Studies were included if they present quantitative or qualitative results about cyberbullying in Canada and internationally.
• Empirical studies (i.e. studies that include original research results) were included. Review studies (i.e. studies that include reviews of other studies, without original research results) were excluded.
• Research published in English was included.
• Research that appears in a peer review article, or government report were included (sources are listed in the references section).
• Studies were included if they involve children, youth, and/or young adults (8-25 years of age).

Data Collection and Analysis

Data Collection

The data collection started with a scan of databases (listed below) and all other relevant sources of literature (e.g., online/web scans) using the list of keywords found under the subsection entitled “Keywords.” Articles found within the date range (2000s to August 2021) were compiled into a common database (Zotero). Subsequently, all articles were reviewed with a view to sorting and prioritizing the most relevant sources. Sources were checked for validity and reliability, ensuring that they are supported by rigorous methodology, containing findings that are relevant for this study. As per Figure 1 below, exclusion and inclusion criteria were applied to arrive at a final sample. Of particular interest were sources that address or answer the research questions and objectives identified above.

Figure 1: Article Selection Process

Read More: https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/2023-r006/index-en.aspx

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